सामान्य अंग्रेजी विधिक भाषा, विधिक लेखन
DR. BHIMRAO AMBEDKAR LAW UNIVERSITY, JAIPUR
SYLLABUS - PAPER 1.6
General English, Legal Language and Legal Writing.
UNIT I - FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR AND ENGLISH, LANGUAGE SKILLS -
1.1 Use of Prepositions; Correction of errors in Sentences.
1.2 Narration- Direct and Indirect Speech, Active and Passive Voice.
1.3 Reading Comprehension.
1.4 Precis writing.
1.5 Translation - from English to Hindi and Hindi to English.
UNIT II- LEGAL LANGUAGE
2.1 Legal language - meaning, scope and issues.
2.2 Constitutional provisions relating to language.
2.3 Comprehension and analysis of any two Supreme Court judgments.
2.4 Selection of language in drafting of documents/ judgments.
2.5 Language to be used in representations for grievance redressal.
UNIT III - LEGAL VOCABULARY AND MAXIMS
3.1 Utility of legal vocabulary and maxims.
3.2 Selection of legal vocabulary appropriate to situation and context.
3.3 Illustrative list of legal vocabulary - Meaning and use in sentences - Act of God, Affidavit, Adverse possession, Anticipatory Bail, Amicus curiae, Benefit of doubt, Civil rights, Compounding of offence, Contempt of Court, Constitutionality of an Act, Rarest of Rare, Per incurium, FIR, Natural justice, Secularism, Uniform, Civil Code, Locus standi
3.4 Laissez-faire, Illustrative list of legal maxims and their meanings -
1. Actus non facit reum nisi mens sit rea (The act itself does not constitute guilt unless done with a guilt intent).
2. Actio personalis moritur cum persona (A personal right of action dies with the person).
3. Audi Alteram Partem (No man shall be condemned unheard).
4. Communis error facit jus (Common error sometimes makes
5. Delegatus non potest delegare (Delegate cannot further delegate).
6. Ex nudo pacto non oritur actio (No cause of action arises from a bare promise).
7. In pari delicto potior est condition defendentis (Where the parties are equally at guilt, the defendant is better placed).
8. Generalia specialibus non derogant (General things do not derogate from special things).
9. Ignorantia facti excusat, ignorantia juris non excusat (Ignorance of fact excuses, ignorance of law does not excuse).
10. Omnia praesumuntur contra spoliatorem (All things are presumed against a wrong doer).
11. Qui facit per alium facit per se (He who does an act through another is deemed in Law to do it himself).
12. Respondeat superior (Let the principal be held responsiblė).
13. Res ipsa loquitur (The thing itself speaks).
14. Sic utere tuo ut alienum non laedas (Enjoy your property in such a manner as not to injure that of another person).
15. Ubi jus ibi remedium (Every right has a remedy).
16. Volenti non fit injuria (Damage suffered by consent is not a cause of action).
17. Salus populi est suprema lex (Regard for the public welfare is the highest law).
18. Rex non-potest peccare (The king can do no wrong).
19. Vigilantibus non dormientibus, jura Subveniut (The laws give help to those who are vigilant and not to those who sleep over their rights).
20. Nemo debet esse judex in propria causa (No one ought to be a judge in his own cause).
3.5 Legal colloquialisms and commonly used legal terms: Uncle judge syndrome, Pro bono publico, Doli incapax, Paper tiger.
UNIT IV - FUNCTIONAL AND LEGAL WRITING
4.1 Importance of legal writing in the legal profession; Differences between legal writing and other forms of writing; Characteristics of good legal writing: clarity, conciseness, accuracy, and
persuasiveness.
4.2 Writing of case comments, reports, notices and memos.
4.3 Writing official letters.
4.4 Preparation of a personal Resume for professional purposes.
4.5 Writing legal opinion-based short editorials.
Unit I Functional Grammer and English Language Skills - Part of Speech
Use of prepositions - Prepositions -
Prepoaitions are words used with a noun or pronoun which show time, place,position and method. To, in, from, between, after etc.
Prepositions are words that establish a relationship between a noun or pronoun and other parts of the sentence. They act as connectors to provide context regarding when, where, or how something is happening.
Key Functions & Examples -
Time - Indicates when an event occurs. at, on, in, after, before, I will meet you after lunch.
Place - Indicates where something is located. under, over, in, at, on, The book is on the table.
Direction -- Indicates the movement or path. to, from, into, across, She is walking to the school.
Position - Shows the relation of one object to another. between, beside, against, I Sit between your two friends. |
Important Characteristics -
Placement - They are usually placed before a noun or a pronoun (their object).
Fixed Combinations- Sometimes prepositions are part of a fixed phrase (proud of, interested in).
Relationship Builders - Without prepositions, a sentence would just be a list of nouns without any clear link between them.
When a preposition (or a group of words acting as one) follows a noun, it often forms a Prepositional Phrase that functions as an adjective. Its job is to modify or provide more specific information about that noun.
1. Function-The Adjectival Role
When the preposition follows a noun, it tells us which one or what kind. It narrows down the identity of the noun.
I. Structure - Noun + Preposition + Object of Preposition
Example - The book on the shelf is mine.
Noun - book
Preposition - on
Function: It identifies which book we are talking about.
2. Common Patterns
Noun + Place - The house between the hills.
Noun + Time
Examp - A meeting after the break.
Noun + Possession/Origin -
Exmp - l The lady from Denmark.
3. Noun + Preposition Combinations -
In English, certain nouns are almost always followed by specific prepositions to complete their meaning. These are called Dependent Prepositions.
Noun + Preposition
Reason + for
There is no reason for anger.
Increase + in
We saw an increase in prices.
Relationship + with
She has a good relationship with her staff.
Solution + to
Do you have a solution to the problem?
Important Note - If the prepositional phrase follows a verb, it usually tells us how, when, or where the action happened (Adverbial).
Correction of errors in Sentences -
In English grammar and legal writing, Correction of Errors in Sentences involves identifying and fixing grammatical, syntactical, or logical mistakes to ensure clarity and precision.
Here are the most common types of errors and how to correct them -
1. Subject-Verb Agreement Errors - The subject and the verb must agree in number. A singular subject takes a singular verb, and a plural subject takes a plural verb.
I. Incorrect - The list of rules are very long.
II. Correct - The list of rules is very long. (The subject is list, not rules).
2. Pronoun-Antecedent Errors -
A pronoun must clearly refer to its noun (the antecedent) and match it in gender and number.
I. Incorrect - Every student must bring their own book.
II. Correct - Every student must bring his or her own book. (Or - Students must bring their own books).
3. Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers - A modifier should be placed as close as possible to the word it describes. If it describes the wrong word, it is misplaced. If the word it should describe is missing, it is dangling.
I. Incorrect - While walking to the court, the file was lost. (This suggests the file was walking).
II. Correct - While walking to the court, I lost the file.
4. Tense Inconsistency - Changing verb tenses within a single sentence or paragraph without a reason creates confusion.
I. Incorrect - She walked into the room and starts to shout.
II. Correct - She walked into the room and started to shout.
5. Parallelism Errors - Sentences with a series of items or actions should use the same grammatical form for each item -
I. Incorrect - He likes hiking, swimming, and to ride a bike.
II. Correct - He likes hiking, swimming, and cycling.
6. Common Legal Sentence Corrections - In legal contexts, precision is vital. Small errors can change the entire meaning of a statute or a judgment.
Type of Error - Incorrect Sentence = Corrected Sentence
Punctuation - The judge said the lawyer is a fool. = The judge, said the lawyer, is a fool. (Or - The judge said, "The lawyer is a fool.")
Ambiguity - The defendant hit the man with a cane. = Using a cane, the defendant hit the man.
Redundancy - He was returned back to his home. = He returned to his home.
Steps to Correct a Sentence -
I. Identify the Subject and Verb - Ensure they match.
II. Check the Tense - Ensure it remains consistent throughout the context.
III. Check Punctuation - A misplaced comma can lead to a "comma splice" or change the meaning entirely.
IV. Simplify - Remove "legalese" or redundant words that do not add value.
Narration- Direct and Indirect Speech - In English grammar, Narration refers to the act of reporting the words of a speaker. This is done in two primary ways -
Direct Speech and Indirect Speech (also known as Reported Speech).
1. Direct Speech - Direct speech quotes the exact words spoken by the person. These words are placed within quotation marks (".......").
Structure - Reporting Verb + Comma + "Quoted Speech"
Example - He said, "I am writing a legal brief."
2. Indirect Speech - Indirect speech reports the substance of what someone said without using their exact words. The quotation marks and commas are removed, and a connector (usually "that") is used.
Structure - Reporting Verb + that + Reported Speech (with tense changes)
Example - He said that he was writing a legal brief.
3. Rules for Transformation - To change Direct Speech into Indirect Speech, you must follow specific rules regarding tenses, pronouns, and time expressions.
A. Change of Tenses - If the reporting verb is in the past tense (e.g., said), the tense of the reported speech changes as follows -
Direct Speech = Indirect Speech
Simple Present (write) = Simple Past (wrote)
Present Continuous (am writing) = Past Continuous (was writing)
Present Perfect (have written) = Past Perfect (had written)
Simple Past (wrote) = Past Perfect (had written)
Will / Shall = Would / Should
Can / May = Could / Might
Note - If the reporting verb is in the present or future tense (e.g., says, will say), the tense inside the quotation marks does not change.
B. Change of Pronouns - Pronouns change according to the speaker and the listener -
First person (I, we) changes according to the Subject of the reporting verb.
Second person (You) changes according to the Object of the reporting verb.
Third person (He, She, It, They) does not change.
C. Change of Time and Place Expressions - Words expressing nearness are changed into words expressing distance - Now - Then
Today - That day
This - That
Here - There
Tomorrow - The next day / The following day
Yesterday - The previous day / The day before
4. Special Cases -
Interrogative Sentences। (Questions) -
For Yes/No questions, use if or whether.
The question form changes into an assertive (statement) form.
Example - She said, "Are you a lawyer?" \rightarrow She asked if I was a lawyer.
Imperative Sentences (Commands/Requests) - The reporting verb is changed to ordered, requested, advised, or suggested.
Use "to" + Verb (Infinitive).
Example - The Judge said, "Call the witness." \rightarrow The Judge ordered to call the witness.
Universal Truths -If the reported speech expresses a universal truth or a habitual fact, the tense does not change.
Example - The teacher said, "The Sun rises in the East." = The teacher said that the Sun rises in the East.
Summary Table -
Direct = Indirect
"I am busy today." = He said that he was busy that day.
"I have seen this movie." = She said that she had seen that movie.
"Where do you live?" = He asked me where I lived.
"Please help me." = She requested me to help her.
Active and pessive voice - In English grammar, Voice refers to the relationship between the subject and the action (verb). There are two main types: Active Voice and Passive Voice.
1. Active Voice - In the active voice, the subject of the sentence performs the action. It is direct, clear, and more common in everyday conversation.
Structure - Subject + Verb + Object
Example - The Judge delivered the verdict. (The subject Judge is doing the action).
2. Passive Voice - In the passive voice, the subject is acted upon by the verb. The focus shifts from the doer to the receiver or the action itself. It is often used in formal or legal writing.
Structure - Object + Helping Verb (be) + Past Participle (V3) + by + Subject
Example - The verdict was delivered by the Judge.
3. Rules for Transformation - To change a sentence from Active to Passive, follow these specific steps:
A. Tense Transformation Chart - The helping verb changes according to the original tense of the active - sentence
Tense - active voice = pessive voice
Simple Present - He writes a brief. = A brief is written by him.
Present Continuous - He is writing a brief. = A brief is being written by him.
Present Perfect - He has written a brief. = A brief has been written by him.
Simple Past - He wrote a brief. = A brief was written by him.
Past Continuous - He was writing a brief.= A brief was being written by him.
Simple Future - He will write a brief. = A brief will be written by him.
Modals - He can write a brief. = A brief can be written by him.
B. Change of Pronouns -When the subject becomes the object in a passive sentence, the pronoun changes -
* I - me
* We - us
* You - you
* He - him
* She - her
* They - them
4. Special Cases in Legal Context - When the Doer is Unknown or Obvious
Sometimes the 'by + subject' part is omitted if the doer is unimportant or understood.
Active - The police arrested the thief.
Passive - The thief was arrested. (The 'by police' is understood).
Imperative Sentences (Orders/Requests) - For commands, use the structure - Let + Object + be + V3.
Active - Open the court.
Passive - Let the court be opened.
Sentences with Two Objects
If a sentence has an indirect and a direct object, either can become the subject of the passive sentence.
Active - The court gave him (IO) a notice (DO).
Passive 1 - A notice was given to him by the court.
Passive 2 - He was given a notice by the court.
5. Why use Passive Voice in Law? - Legal writing often uses the passive voice to maintain an objective and formal tone.
I. Objective -"It is ordered..." (Focuses on the order, not the judge's personality).
II. Emphasis - "The rights were violated." (Focuses on the violation of rights rather than who violated them).
Reading comprehension - Legal comprehension requires you to identify facts, understand the "ratio decidendi" (the reason for the decision), and apply the law to the situation.
Below is a practice exercise based on the principles of the Hindu Succession (Amendment) Act, 2005.
Practice Passage -
The Evolution of Daughter's Rights
"Prior to the 2005 Amendment, the Mitakshara coparcenary was an all-male preserve. A daughter, upon marriage, was considered a member of her husband's family and lost her connection to her natal family's joint property. However, Section 6 was overhauled in 2005 to remove this gender discrimination. Now, a daughter of a coparcener becomes a coparcener by birth in her own right, in the same manner as a son. She has the same rights and liabilities as she would have had if she had been a son. This change is not just about inheritance; it represents a shift toward constitutional equality, ensuring that birthright cannot be denied based on gender."
Comprehension Questions -
1. Literal Comprehension (Direct Facts) -
Question - According to the passage, what was the status of the Mitakshara coparcenary before 2005?
Answer - It was an "all-male preserve," meaning only men could be part of the joint family property structure.
2. Interpretive Comprehension (Reading Between the Lines) -
Question - What does the phrase "in the same manner as a son" imply for a daughter's legal standing today?
Answer - It implies that her rights are now independent and birth-based. She does not receive property as a gift or favor; she owns it by virtue of being born into the family, exactly like a male member.
3. Vocabulary in Context -
Question - What does the word "Liabilities" mean in the sentence: "She has the same rights and liabilities"?
Answer - In this legal context, it means that just as she shares in the property (assets), she is also responsible for a share of the family's debts or legal obligations.
4. Critical/Applied Comprehension -
Question - If a daughter was born in 1990 but her father died in 2020, does she have a claim?
Answer - Yes. Based on the text (and the Vineeta Sharma ruling we discussed), she became a coparcener "by birth." Since the law was in effect when the succession opened in 2020, her claim is valid.
Strategic Tips for Exams -
The "First and Last" Rule - Read the first and last sentences of every paragraph first. Legal writers often put their main conclusion at the end and the premise at the start.
Note the Exceptions - Look for words like "Provided that," "Save as otherwise," or "Notwithstanding." These words often contain the answer to "trick" questions.
Summarize Mentally - After every paragraph, ask yourself - ? "What was the Law here and what was the Fact ?"
Precis writing -
Precis writing is the art of summarizing a long passage into a clear, concise, and logical shorter version while retaining the original meaning and tone. In legal and academic circles, it is often called an "Executive Summary" or a "Brief."
A good precis should generally be one-third the length of the original text.
1. Essentials of a Good Precis -
I. Conciseness - Avoid unnecessary words, flowery language, and repetition.
II. Clarity - The reader should understand the main idea without reading the original text.
III. Completeness - All essential points must be included.
IV. Coherence - It should flow logically as a single, well-connected paragraph.
V. Objectivity - Do not add your own opinions, comments, or external information.
2. Steps to Write a Precis -
I. Reading - Read the passage at least twice. First to get the "gist" and second to identify key points.
II. Selection - Underline or list the main arguments, facts, and conclusions.
III. Drafting - Write a rough draft using your own words. Use Indirect Speech and the Third Person.
IV. Refinement - Remove examples, illustrations, and redundant adjectives.
V. Title - Provide a suitable and catchy heading that reflects the central theme.
VI. Word Count - Check if the length is approximately 1/3rd of the original.
3. Legal Precis Writing Tips -
When summarizing a case like Githa Hariharan v. RBI or a statute -
I. Omit Citations - You don't need to list every case law mentioned unless it is the main subject.
II. Focus on the Ratio - Focus on the final decision (the rule) rather than the long arguments of both sides.
III. Use Active Voice - It makes the summary shorter and more direct.
4. Practice Example - Original Text (100 words) -
"The Hindu Succession (Amendment) Act, 2005 was a landmark piece of legislation that aimed to bring about a social and legal revolution by granting daughters equal rights in coparcenary property. Before this, only male members were recognized as coparceners. This gender bias was seen as a violation of the constitutional mandate of equality. By amending Section 6, the parliament ensured that a daughter, by birth, would have the same rights as a son, thereby promoting justice and gender equity within the Hindu joint family system across the entire nation."
Precis (32 words) -
Title - Gender Equality in Hindu Succession
The 2005 Amendment revolutionized Hindu law by granting daughters equal birthrights in coparcenary property. By removing historical gender bias, the Act aligned traditional succession with the constitutional mandate of social justice.
Checklist for your Precis -
Translation - from English to Hindi and Hindi to English -
Translation is the process of conveying the meaning of a text from one language (the Source Language) to another (the Target Language). It requires not just word-for-word replacement, but an understanding of grammar, culture, and context.
1. Key Principles of Translation -
I. Sense for Sense, Not Word for Word - Focus on the meaning of the sentence rather than translating each individual word literally.
II. Contextual Accuracy - Words often have different meanings based on the subject (e.g., 'Order' in a restaurant vs. 'Order' in a court).
III. Grammar Alignment -English usually follows a Subject-Verb-Object (SVO) structure, while Hindi follows a Subject-Object-Verb (SOV) structure.
2. English to Hindi (SOV Structure) - When translating into Hindi, ensure the verb moves to the end of the sentence.
English (S-V-O) = Hindi (S-O-V) Technical Note -
I. The Judge (S) delivered (V) the judgment (O). = न्यायाधीश (S) ने निर्णय (O) सुनाया (V)। Use of ने for past transitive verbs.
II. She (S) is reading (V) a book (O). = वह (S) किताब (O) पढ़ रही है (V)। Present Continuous tense marker.
III. Justice must be done. = न्याय होना चाहिए। Use of चाहिए for obligation.
3. Hindi to English (SVO Structure) - When translating into English, the action (verb) follows the doer (subject).
Hindi (S-O-V) = English (S-V-O) Technical Note -
I. पुलिस ने चोर को पकड़ा। = The police caught the thief. Simple Past tense.
II. वह आगरा जा रहा है। = He is going to Agra. Present Continuous.
III. बेटी का संपत्ति पर समान अधिकार है। = The daughter has an equal right to the property. Use of has for possession/rights.
4. Common Legal & Formal Vocabulary -
English Term = Hindi Equivalent - Context
Amendment = संशोधन - Legislation
Evidence = साक्ष्य/सबूत - Court Proceedings
Maintenance = भरण-पोषण / गुजारा भत्ता - Family Law
Void = शून्य - Contracts/Marriage
Petition = याचिका - Legal Filing
5. Tips for Effective Translation
I. Identify the Tense - Ensure the time frame (Past, Present, Future) remains the same in both languages.
II. Maintain Tone - If the English text is formal (legal), the Hindi translation should use formal vocabulary (शुद्ध हिंदी).
III. Check for Idioms - Never translate idioms literally.
IV. English - "It is raining cats and dogs."
Literal Hindi (Wrong) - "बिल्लियाँ और कुत्ते बरस रहे हैं।"
Correct Translation - "मूसलाधार बारिश हो रही है।"
Practice Exercise -
Translate the following from English to Hindi -
The Supreme Court ruled that a daughter is a coparcener by birth."
Translate the following from Hindi to English -
"हिंदू विवाह अधिनियम की धारा 9 दाम्पत्य अधिकारों की पुनर्स्थापना से संबंधित है।"
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UNIT II- LEGAL LANGUAGE
Legal language Meaning, Scope and Issues -
1. Need of legal language - Legal Language refers to the specialized language used by legal professionals (judges, lawyers, and legislators) to draft laws, write judgments, and argue cases. It is often referred to as "Legalese" due to its complex and technical nature.
2. Meaning of Legal Language - Legal language is a specific variety of language (a sub-language) designed to achieve legal effects. It is characterized by its high level of precision, use of archaic terms, and reliance on Latin and French roots.
I. Precision - It aims to eliminate ambiguity so that a law can be interpreted consistently.
II. Formality - It follows a strict tone and structure to reflect the solemnity of the judicial system.
III. Technicality - it uses words that have a very specific meaning in law which may differ from their common meaning (e.g., "Consideration" in law refers to a price/value in a contract, not just thinking about something).
3. Scope of Legal Language -
The scope of legal language is vast and touches almost every aspect of a functioning society. It is used in -
I. Legislation - Drafting of statutes, acts, and ordinances.
II. Judiciary - Writing of court orders, decrees, and detailed judgments.
III. Legal Practice - Preparation of petitions, affidavits, and legal notices.
IV. Contracts & Conveyancing - Drafting agreements, deeds (like sale deeds or adoption deeds), and wills.
V. Administrative Law - Rules and regulations issued by government departments.
4. Issues and Challenges- Despite its necessity, legal language faces several criticisms and practical challenges.
I. Complexity (The "Plain English" Problem) - The use of long, convoluted sentences and archaic terms (like whereas, heretofore, witnesseth) makes it difficult for a layperson to understand their own rights.
II. Ambiguity - Ironically, the attempt to be overly precise often leads to "syntactic ambiguity," where the placement of a comma or a conjunction can change the meaning of an entire statute.
III. Language Barrier - In countries like India, the primary language of the higher judiciary is English, which creates a barrier for the majority of the population who may only speak regional languages.
IV. Rigidity - Legal language can be slow to adapt to modern social changes or technological advancements (e.g., challenges in defining "digital property" using old legal terms).
5. Summary Table -
Feature - Description
I. Archaism - Use of old-fashioned words (e.g., null and void).
II. Latinism - High usage of Latin maxims (e.g., Res Judicata, Caveat Emptor).
III. Redundancy - Use of word pairs (e.g., Terms and Conditions, Fit and Proper).
IV. Formalism - Strict adherence to traditional formats and protocols.
Way Forward - There is a global movement toward "Plain Legal Language." The goal is to make laws more accessible to the public without losing legal accuracy. This involves using shorter sentences, active voice, and modern vocabulary.
Constitutional provisions relating to language -
The Constitution of India contains elaborate provisions regarding languages to balance the country's immense linguistic diversity. These provisions are primarily located in Part XVII (Articles 343 to 351) and the Eighth Schedule.
1. Official Language of the Union (Articles 343-344) -
I. Article 343 - Declares that the official language of the Union shall be Hindi in Devanagari script.
II. Numerals - The form of numerals to be used for official purposes shall be the international form of Indian numerals (1, 2, 3...).
III. English Language - Initially, English was to continue for 15 years (until 1965). However, the Official Languages Act, 1963 allowed for its continued use indefinitely alongside Hindi.
IV. Article 344 - Provides for the constitution of a Commission and a Committee of Parliament on Official Language to review the progress of Hindi.
2. Regional Languages (Articles 345-347) -
I. Article 345 - Allows State Legislatures to adopt one or more regional languages or Hindi as the official language of that State.
II. Article 346 - Governs the language for communication between States or between a State and the Union.
III. Article 347 - Empowers the President to recognize a language as an official language in a State if a substantial proportion of the population desires it.
3. Language of the Judiciary and Laws (Articles 348-349) -
I. Article 348 - Mandates that all proceedings in the Supreme Court and every High Court, as well as all Bills, Acts, Ordinances, and Rules, shall be in the English language until Parliament provides otherwise.
II. State Exception - With the Governor's consent and President's approval, a High Court may use Hindi or another regional language for proceedings, but judgments and orders must still be in English.
4. Special Directives (Articles 350-351)
I. Article 350 - Every person is entitled to submit a representation for the redress of any grievance in any of the languages used in the Union or the State.
II. Article 350A - Directs States to provide adequate facilities for instruction in the mother-tongue at the primary stage of education to children belonging to linguistic minority groups.
III. Article 350B - Provides for the appointment of a Special Officer for Linguistic Minorities.
IV. Article 351 - Places a duty on the Union to promote the spread of the Hindi language and to develop it so that it may serve as a medium of expression for all elements of the composite culture of India.
5. The Eighth Schedule - The Eighth Schedule currently recognizes 22 languages. These languages are given special status and representation on the Official Languages Commission.
Category - Key Articles
I. Union Language - 343, 344
II. Regional Languages - 345, 346, 347
III. Judiciary & Legislation - 348, 349
IV. Special Directives - 350, 350A, 350B, 351
Summary of Important Rights -The Constitution ensures that while there is an "Official Language" for administrative convenience, the rights of linguistic minorities are protected, and no citizen is denied justice or education simply because of their language.
Comprehension and analysis of any two Supreme Court judgments - To provide a comprehensive analysis, we select two landmark Supreme Court judgments that have fundamentally reshaped Hindu Law and Constitutional Rights in India. These cases are particularly relevant to public interests in succession and property rights.
1. Vineeta Sharma v. Rakesh Sharma (2020) - This case is considered the final word on the 2005 amendment to the Hindu Succession Act.
Comprehension of the Case -
I. The Conflict - There were conflicting previous judgments (Prakash v. Phulavati and Danamma v. Amar) regarding whether a daughter could claim coparcenary rights if her father had died before the 2005 amendment came into force.
II. The Ruling: - A three-judge bench led by Justice Arun Mishra ruled that the right of a daughter is a birthright.
III. Key Fact - The court held that the daughter becomes a coparcener by birth, regardless of whether the father was alive on September 9, 2005 (the date of the amendment).
Legal Analysis -
I. Retroactive Application - The court clarified that the law has a "retroactive" effect. It operates on a state of affairs that existed in the past (the daughter's birth) but provides rights moving forward from 2005.
II. Gender Equality - By removing the "living father" requirement, the court aligned the Hindu Succession Act with Article 14 (Equality) of the Constitution.
III. Finality - It effectively overruled the 2016 Phulavati judgment, ensuring that daughters cannot be denied their share based on the timing of their father's death.
2. Shayara Bano v. Union of India (2017) - Commonly known as the Triple Talaq Case, this judgment is a masterpiece of constitutional and personal law analysis.
Comprehension of the Case -
I. The Conflict - The petitioner challenged the practice of Talaq-e-Biddat (instant triple talaq), arguing it was discriminatory and left women without legal recourse or maintenance.
II. The Ruling - The Supreme Court, in a 3:2 majority, declared the practice of instant triple talaq unconstitutional and void.
III. Key Fact - The court issued an injunction against the practice, which eventually led to the Parliament passing the Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Marriage) Act, 2019.
Legal Analysis -
I. Manifest Arbitrariness -Justice Nariman and Justice Lalit used the test of "Manifest Arbitrariness." They argued that a practice that allows a man to break a marriage "capriciously and whimsically" without any attempt at reconciliation is arbitrary and violates Article 14.
II. Essential Religious Practice - The court analyzed whether this form of divorce was an "essential religious practice" under Article 25. It concluded that since many Islamic nations had abolished it and it was not found in the Quranic tenets, it was not protected.
III. Personal Law vs. Constitution - This judgment reinforced the principle that personal laws must yield to Fundamental Rights when they are found to be discriminatory.
IV. Outcome -
I. In first Case - Birthright is absolute, father's death date is irrelevant.
II. Case II - Instant Triple Talaq is void and unconstitutional.
Selection of language in drafting of documents/ judgments. -
The selection of language in drafting legal documents and judgments is a critical process that balances constitutional mandates, procedural law, and the need for clarity and accessibility.
Below is a detailed analysis of how language is selected in the Indian legal system -
1. Constitutional Framework for Selection - The primary authority for selecting the language of high-level legal documents is the Constitution of India.
I. Supreme Court and High Courts - Under Article 348(1), all proceedings, including the drafting of judgments, decrees, and orders, must be in English.
II. Legislative Drafting - Bills, Acts, and Ordinances are also drafted in English under the same constitutional provision.
III. State Exceptions - Under Article 348(2), the Governor of a State, with the President's consent, can authorize the use of Hindi or the State's official language in High Court proceedings. However, the final judgment or decree must still be accompanied by an English translation.
2. Selection in Subordinate Courts - The selection of language in lower courts (District and Session Courts) is governed by procedural codes rather than direct constitutional mandates.
I. Civil Documents - Under Section 137 of the Code of Civil Procedure (CPC), the language of the court is determined by the State Government. Most pleadings (Plaints and Written Statements) are drafted in the regional language or Hindi.
II. Criminal Documents - Under Section 272 of the Code of Criminal Procedure (CRPC), the State Government determines the language of each court within the state other than the High Court.
III. Judgments - Judgments in these courts are typically written in the language of the court (e.g., Hindi in Rajasthan or Uttar Pradesh) to ensure the parties involved can understand the verdict.
3. Factors Influencing Language Selection - When drafting private legal documents (Contracts, Wills, Deeds), the selection is based on practical and strategic factors:
Factor - Description
I. Intention of Parties -Documents like Wills are often drafted in the language the testator (writer) understands best to prove "testamentary capacity."
II. Jurisdiction - If a contract involves international parties, English is almost always selected to ensure global enforceability.
III. Enforceability - Documents must be in a language understood by the registering authority (Sub-Registrar) or accompanied by a certified translation.
IV. Technical Accuracy - Legal "terms of art" are often more precise in English/Latin, leading many practitioners to prefer English for complex commercial agreements. |
4. Modern Trends and Issues - There is an ongoing shift in how language is selected and used in modern drafting -
I. Multilingual Judgments - The Supreme Court of India has recently started providing translated copies of its judgments in regional languages (using AI tools) to make justice more accessible to common citizens.
II. Plain Language Movement - There is a growing preference for "Plain English" over "Legalese" to reduce the ambiguity and complexity discussed in legal language studies.
III. The Three-Language Formula - In administrative drafting, documents often follow a bilingual (Hindi and English) or trilingual (including a regional language) format to comply with the Official Languages Act, 1963.
Summary of Language Selection Logic -
I. Constitutional Level - English (Mandatory for SC/HC).
II. Statutory Level - Determined by State Government (Regional/Hindi).
III. Private Level - Determined by the parties' convenience and clarity of intent.
Language to be used in representations for grievance redressal. -
In India, the language used for submitting representations for the redressal of grievances is governed by specific constitutional mandates and administrative rules to ensure that every citizen, regardless of their linguistic background, can access justice and government services.
1. Constitutional Provisions - The most important legal protection for language in grievance redressal is found in Article 350 of the Constitution of India.
I. Universal Language Right: Under Article 350, every person is entitled to submit a representation for the redressal of any grievance to any officer or authority of the Union or a State in any of the languages used in the Union or in the State, as the case may be.
II. No Rejection based on Language - This means a government authority cannot legally reject a complaint or petition simply because it is written in a regional language or a mother tongue, provided that language is used within that territory.
2. Safeguards for Linguistic Minorities - The Constitution provides additional layers of protection for those who speak minority languages to ensure their grievances are heard.
I. Primary Education (Article 350A) - It is the endeavor of every State to provide instruction in the mother tongue at the primary stage of education for linguistic minority groups.
II. Special Officer (Article 350B) - A Special Officer for Linguistic Minorities is appointed by the President to investigate all matters relating to the safeguards provided for linguistic minorities under the Constitution.
3. Practical Application in Administration - While Article 350 gives you the right to use any language, the administrative response often follows the Official Languages Act, 1963.
I. Central Government - Representations to Central authorities are typically accepted in Hindi or English. If a representation is received in a regional language, the department usually translates it internally to process the grievance.
II. State Governments - Most states have their own Official Language Acts which designate the language of administration (e.g., Hindi in Rajasthan, Marathi in Maharashtra). Grievances in these local languages are processed directly.
III. Digital Portals - Platforms like CPGRAMS (Centralized Public Grievance Redress and Monitoring System) often provide multilingual interfaces to allow citizens to file complaints in various scheduled languages.
Summary Table: Language Rights in Grievance Redressal
Category -Provision Description
I. Right to Submit - Article 350 - Can use any language used in the Union or State.
II. Union Official Language - Article 343 - Hindi in Devanagari script is the primary official language.
III. Administrative Aid - Article 350B - Special Officer monitors rights of linguistic minorities.
IV. Judiciary - Article 348 - Representations to the SC/HC are generally required to be in English.
UNIT III - LEGAL VOCABULARY AND MAXIMS
Legal vocabulary and maxims are the building blocks of law, providing the precision needed to ensure that justice is administered consistently. Legal language often relies on Latin maxims - short, pithy statements that express a fundamental legal principle or rule.
1. Essential Legal Vocabulary - Legal terms of art often have meanings that differ from common usage. Understanding these is crucial for reading statutes and judgments.
Ab initio - From the beginning. (e.g., A contract entered into by a minor is void ab initio).
Ad litem - For the suit. Usually refers to a person appointed by a court to represent the interests of a minor or incapacitated person.
Affidavit - A written statement of facts, sworn to be true before an authorized officer (like an Oath Commissioner).
Amicus Curiae - A "friend of the court." A lawyer or person who assists the court by offering information or expertise on a case.
Locus Standi - The right or capacity to bring an action or to appear in a court.
Pendente lite - During the pendency of the litigation.
Res Sub-judice - A matter that is currently under judicial consideration and has not yet been decided by a court.
2. Fundamental Legal Maxims -
These maxims act as the "logic" of the law. They are frequently used by judges in their decisions to explain the reasoning behind a ruling.
Audi Alteram Partem - Hear the other side.
उदाहरण - No person should be judged without a fair hearing (Natural Justice).
Caveat Emptor - Let the buyer beware.
उदाहरण - The buyer is responsible for checking the quality of goods before purchasing.
Damnum Sine Injuria - Damage without injury.
उदाहरण - Financial or physical loss without the violation of a legal right is not actionable.
Injuria Sine Damno - Injury without damage.
उदाहरण - The violation of a legal right is actionable even if no actual physical or financial loss occurs.
Res Ipsa Loquitur - The thing speaks for itself.
उदाहरण - Used in negligence cases where the accident itself implies someone was at fault.
Ubi Jus Ibi Remedium - Where there is a right, there is a remedy.
उदाहरण - If a person's legal right is violated, the law provides a way to get justice. |
3. Maxims in Constitutional & Personal Law - Many maxims are specific to the areas of law we have been discussing, such as Hindu Law or Constitutional Law.
Delegatus non potest delegare - A person to whom a power is delegated cannot delegate it to another. This is key in Administrative Law.
Nemo debet esse judex in propria causa - No man shall be a judge in his own cause. This prevents bias in the judiciary.
Salus populi est suprema lex - The welfare of the people is the supreme law. This justifies state intervention for the public good.
Stare Decisis - To stand by things decided. This is the principle of following precedents (previous judgments).
4. Utility of Latin Maxims? -
While there is a shift toward "Plain English" in modern drafting, maxims remain popular because they -
Condense complex ideas - A single phrase can summarize pages of legal theory.
Universal Understanding - These Latin terms are recognized by lawyers across the globe, facilitating international legal communication.
Authority - Using established maxims adds a layer of historical and judicial authority to a legal argument.
Practice Exercise -
Try to identify which maxim applies to this scenario -
Question 1. A person builds a shop right next to yours and starts selling the same products at a lower price. Your business suffers a heavy loss, but no legal right of yours was violated.
Answer: Damnum Sine Injuria)
Maxims - विधि शास्त्र के Maxims -
विधि शास्त्र (Jurisprudence) में लैटिन मैक्सिम्स (Legal Maxims) वे आधारभूत सिद्धांत हैं जो सदियों से कानूनी व्याख्याओं का आधार रहे हैं। ये संक्षिप्त सूत्र गहरे कानूनी अर्थ समेटे होते हैं।
यहाँ कुछ अत्यंत महत्वपूर्ण मैक्सिम्स उनके अर्थ और उदाहरण के साथ दिए गए हैं -
1. Actus non facit reum nisi mens sit rea -
अर्थ - केवल कार्य किसी को अपराधी नहीं बनाता, जब तक कि उसका इरादा (नियत) भी अपराधी न हो। इस हेतु दो प्रकार की गतिविधियां होती हैं -
I. शारीरिक कार्य (Actus Reus)
II. मानसिक इरादा (Mens Rea)
अगर किसी से गलती से कोई काम हो जाए जिसमें कोई बुरी नियत न हो, तो वह आमतौर पर अपराधी नहीं माना जाता।
तथ्य - किसी व्यक्ति को सजा देने के लिए दो चीजों का होना जरूरी है -
1. Actus Reus (दोषपूर्ण कार्य)
2. Mens Rea (दोषपूर्ण मंशा)
केवल कार्य काफी नहीं है, कार्य के पीछे की नीयत भी देखी जाती है।
उदाहरण - यदि कोई शिकारी जंगल में झाड़ी के पीछे हिलती हुई वस्तु को जानवर समझकर गोली चलाता है, लेकिन वहां कोई इंसान निकलता है, तो यहाँ Mens Rea (मारने की नीयत) की कमी के कारण वह हत्या का दोषी नहीं होगा (यह तथ्य की भूल है)।
2. Actio personalis moritur cum persona -
अर्थ - व्यक्ति के साथ ही उसका व्यक्तिगत कानूनी अधिकार भी समाप्त हो जाता है।
व्याख्या - यदि किसी व्यक्ति के खिलाफ मानहानि या शारीरिक चोट जैसा कोई व्यक्तिगत मुकदमा चल रहा हो और उस व्यक्ति की मृत्यु हो जाए, तो वह मुकदमा भी खत्म हो जाता है। उत्तराधिकारी इस तरह के व्यक्तिगत अधिकारों के लिए मुकदमा जारी नहीं रख सकते।
3. Audi Alteram Partem -
अर्थ - दूसरे पक्ष को भी सुना जाए (किसी को भी बिना सुने दंडित नहीं किया जाएगा)।
व्याख्या - यह 'प्राकृतिक न्याय' (Natural Justice) का सबसे महत्वपूर्ण सिद्धांत है। अदालत किसी भी मामले में फैसला सुनाने से पहले दोनों पक्षों को अपनी बात रखने का पूरा मौका देती है।
उदाहरण - यदि किसी सरकारी कर्मचारी को बिना 'कारण बताओ नोटिस' दिए नौकरी से निकाल दिया जाता है, तो न्यायालय उस आदेश को रद्द कर सकता है क्योंकि यहाँ कर्मचारी को सुनने का अवसर नहीं दिया गया।
4. Communis error facit jus
अर्थ - सामान्य (पुरानी) त्रुटि कभी-कभी कानून बन जाती है।
व्याख्या - यदि कोई कानूनी गलती लंबे समय से समाज या अदालतों द्वारा स्वीकार की जा रही हो और उसे बदलने से समाज में भारी उथल-पुथल हो सकती हो, तो अदालतें उसे कानून की तरह मान्यता दे देती हैं।
5. Delegatus non potest delegare -
अर्थ - जिसे शक्ति सौंपी गई है (प्रतिनिधि), वह उसे आगे किसी और को नहीं सौंप सकता।
व्याख्या - यदि कानून ने किसी खास अधिकारी को कोई निर्णय लेने की शक्ति दी है, तो वह अधिकारी अपनी मर्जी से वह शक्ति अपने नीचे के कर्मचारी को नहीं दे सकता।
6. Ex nudo pacto non oritur actio -
अर्थ - बिना प्रतिफल के किए गए वादे से कोई कानूनी कार्रवाई उत्पन्न नहीं होती।
व्याख्या - एक कानूनी समझौते के लिए कुछ 'लेन-देन' होना जरूरी है। अगर मैंने बिना किसी बदले के आपसे कुछ करने का वादा किया है, तो आप मुझे अदालत में नहीं घसीट सकते।
7. In pari delicto potior est conditio defendentis -
अर्थ - जहाँ दोनों पक्ष समान रूप से दोषी हों, वहाँ प्रतिवादी (Defendant) की स्थिति बेहतर होती है।
व्याख्या - यदि दो लोग मिलकर कोई अवैध काम करते हैं और उनमें झगड़ा हो जाए, तो अदालत उस व्यक्ति की मदद नहीं करेगी जो मुकदमा लेकर आया है (वादी), बल्कि वह फायदा प्रतिवादी को मिलेगा क्योंकि कानून अवैध काम में मदद नहीं करता।
8. Generalia specialibus non derogant -
अर्थ - सामान्य कानून विशेष कानून को प्रभावित या कम नहीं करते।
व्याख्या - यदि किसी विषय पर एक सामान्य कानून है और एक विशेष कानून (Special Law), तो उस विषय पर हमेशा विशेष कानून ही लागू होगा।
9. Ignorantia facti excusat, ignorantia juris non excusat -
अर्थ - तथ्य की अज्ञानता क्षम्य है, लेकिन कानून की अज्ञानता नहीं।
व्याख्या - आप अदालत में यह नहीं कह सकते कि "मुझे नहीं पता था कि भारत में चोरी करना अपराध है"। लेकिन अगर आपसे तथ्य (Fact) को समझने में गलती हुई है, तो आपको माफी मिल सकती है।
उदाहरण - यदि आप बिना टिकट ट्रेन में यात्रा करते हैं, तो आप यह बहाना नहीं बना सकते कि "मुझे नहीं पता था कि टिकट लेना जरूरी है।" यह कानून की अज्ञानता है।
10. Omnia praesumuntur contra spoliatorem -
अर्थ - साक्ष्य नष्ट करने वाले (गलत काम करने वाले) के खिलाफ सब कुछ मान लिया जाता है।
व्याख्या - यदि कोई व्यक्ति जानबूझकर सबूतों को छुपाता या नष्ट करता है, तो अदालत यह मान लेगी कि वह सबूत उस व्यक्ति के खिलाफ ही थे।
11. Qui facit per alium facit per se
अर्थ - जो दूसरों के माध्यम से कार्य करता है, वह कानून की नजर में स्वयं वह कार्य करता है।
व्याख्या - यह 'एजेंसी' का आधार है। यदि कोई मालिक अपने नौकर से कोई काम करवाता है, तो कानून यह मानता है कि वह काम मालिक ने ही किया है।
12. Respondeat superior
अर्थ - उच्चतम (मालिक) को जिम्मेदार ठहराया जाए।
व्याख्या - यह 'प्रतिनिधिक दायित्व' (Vicarious Liability) का सिद्धांत है। यदि कोई कर्मचारी अपनी नौकरी के दौरान कोई गलती करता है, तो उसका हर्जाना मालिक को भुगतना पड़ता है।
13. Res ipsa loquitur -
अर्थ - घटना स्वयं बोलती है।
व्याख्या - लापरवाही के कुछ मामलों में सबूत की जरूरत नहीं होती क्योंकि दुर्घटना खुद ही लापरवाही साबित कर देती है (जैसे ऑपरेशन के दौरान डॉक्टर का कैंची पेट में छोड़ देना)।
उदाहरण - यदि किसी व्यक्ति के पेट का ऑपरेशन हुआ और डॉक्टर गलती से कैंची अंदर ही भूल गया, तो यहाँ लापरवाही साबित करने की जरूरत नहीं है, घटना खुद गवाही दे रही है।
14. Sic utere tuo ut alienum non laedas -
अर्थ - अपनी संपत्ति का इस तरह उपयोग करें कि दूसरे को नुकसान न हो।
व्याख्या - आपको अपने घर में संगीत सुनने का अधिकार है, लेकिन इतनी जोर से नहीं कि पड़ोसी की शांति भंग हो जाए। यह 'पड़ोसी के प्रति कर्तव्य' को दर्शाता है।
15. Ubi jus ibi remedium
अर्थ - जहाँ अधिकार है, वहाँ उपचार भी है।
व्याख्या - यदि कानून ने आपको कोई अधिकार दिया है और कोई उसे छीनता है, तो अदालत आपको उसे वापस पाने या हर्जाना लेने का रास्ता भी देगी।
उदाहरण - एशबी बनाम व्हाइट (1703) के प्रसिद्ध मामले में, एक व्यक्ति को वोट देने से रोक दिया गया था। भले ही उसके उम्मीदवार की जीत हुई, लेकिन कोर्ट ने कहा कि उसके वोट देने के अधिकार का उल्लंघन हुआ है, इसलिए वह मुआवजे का हकदार है।
16. Volenti non fit injuria -
अर्थ - सहमति से दी गई चोट कानूनी नुकसान नहीं मानी जाती।
व्याख्या - यदि आप स्वेच्छा से किसी जोखिम भरे खेल (जैसे कुश्ती या क्रिकेट) में हिस्सा लेते हैं और आपको चोट लग जाती है, तो आप आयोजकों पर मुकदमा नहीं कर सकते क्योंकि आपने सहमति दी थी।
उदाहरण - क्रिकेट मैच देखने गया दर्शक यदि गेंद लगने से घायल हो जाता है, तो वह खिलाड़ी या स्टेडियम पर मुकदमा नहीं कर सकता क्योंकि वह स्वेच्छा से वहां गया और खतरे को जानता था।
17. Salus populi est suprema lex -
अर्थ - जन कल्याण ही सर्वोच्च कानून है।
व्याख्या - आपातकाल या सार्वजनिक सुरक्षा के समय, व्यक्तिगत अधिकारों की तुलना में पूरे समाज की भलाई को प्राथमिकता दी जाती है।
18. Rex non-potest peccare
अर्थ - राजा (राज्य) कोई गलती नहीं कर सकता।
व्याख्या - यह एक पुरानी अवधारणा है कि सरकार के खिलाफ उसके कार्यों के लिए मुकदमा नहीं चलाया जा सकता, हालांकि आधुनिक समय में लोकतंत्र ने इसे काफी हद तक सीमित कर दिया है।
19. Vigilantibus non dormientibus, jura Subveniunt -
अर्थ - कानून उनकी मदद करता है जो अपने अधिकारों के प्रति जागरूक हैं, न कि उनकी जो सो रहे हैं।
व्याख्या - यदि आपके अधिकारों का हनन हुआ है, तो आपको समय पर अदालत जाना चाहिए। यदि आप कई सालों बाद आते हैं, तो 'Limitation' के आधार पर आपका मामला खारिज किया जा सकता है।
20. Nemo debet esse judex in propria causa -
अर्थ - कोई भी व्यक्ति अपने ही मामले में जज नहीं हो सकता।
व्याख्या - यह 'निष्पक्षता' का सिद्धांत है। यदि किसी मुकदमे में जज का अपना कोई निजी हित या रिश्ता जुड़ा है, तो वह उस मामले की सुनवाई नहीं कर सकता क्योंकि इससे पक्षपात की संभावना रहती है।
उदाहरण - यदि एक न्यायाधीश उस कंपनी के संबंध में फैसला सुना रहा है जिसमें वह खुद हिस्सेदार है, तो यह इस मैक्सिम का उल्लंघन होगा।
21. डैमनम सिने इन्जुरिया (Damnum Sine Injuria)
अर्थ - बिना कानूनी क्षति के नुकसान।
व्याख्या - इसका अर्थ है कि किसी को आर्थिक या अन्य नुकसान तो हुआ है, लेकिन उसके किसी 'कानूनी अधिकार' का उल्लंघन नहीं हुआ है। ऐसे मामले में कोई कानूनी कार्रवाई नहीं की जा सकती।
उदाहरण - यदि आप एक दुकान खोलते हैं और आपके बगल में कोई और वैसी ही दुकान खोल ले जिससे आपकी कमाई कम हो जाए, तो आपको नुकसान (Damnum) तो हुआ, लेकिन आपका कोई कानूनी अधिकार (Injuria) नहीं टूटा।
22. इन्जुरिया सिने डैमनो (Injuria Sine Damno) -
अर्थ - बिना नुकसान के कानूनी क्षति।
व्याख्या - यह ऊपर वाली मैक्सिम का ठीक उल्टा है। यहाँ व्यक्ति को कोई वास्तविक आर्थिक नुकसान नहीं होता, लेकिन उसके कानूनी अधिकार का उल्लंघन होता है। यह दंडनीय है।
उदाहरण - जैसा कि एशबी बनाम व्हाइट मामले में हुआ, व्यक्ति को कोई आर्थिक हानि नहीं हुई थी, लेकिन उसके 'वोट देने के अधिकार' का हनन हुआ था।
23. Res Mejor -
अर्थ - दैवीय घटना (Act of God)।
तथ्य - ऐसी घटनाएं जो मनुष्य के नियंत्रण से बाहर हों और जिन्हें सामान्य सावधानी से रोका न जा सके। यह कानूनी दायित्व से बचने का एक बचाव है।
उदाहरण - अत्यधिक भारी वर्षा या अचानक आए भूकंप के कारण यदि किसी का गोदाम ढह जाए और पड़ोसी की संपत्ति को नुकसान पहुँचे, तो गोदाम का मालिक Vis Major का बचाव ले सकता है।
24. De Minimis Non Curat Lex
अर्थ - कानून छोटी-मोटी बातों पर ध्यान नहीं देता।
तथ्य - न्यायालय बहुत ही मामूली या नगण्य (Trifling) बातों पर मुकदमे की सुनवाई नहीं करता जिनसे किसी का कोई गंभीर कानूनी नुकसान न हुआ हो।
उदाहरण - यदि भीड़भाड़ वाली बस में किसी का धक्का लग जाए या कोई आपकी माचिस से एक तीली जला ले, तो इसके लिए आप कोर्ट नहीं जा सकते।
25. Ex Turpi Causa Non Oritur Actio -
अर्थ - एक अनैतिक या अवैध आधार पर कोई कार्रवाई उत्पन्न नहीं होती।"
तथ्य - यदि कोई व्यक्ति खुद अवैध कार्य कर रहा है, तो वह उस कार्य से हुई क्षति के लिए कानूनी मदद नहीं माँग सकता।
उदाहरण - दो चोर चोरी कर रहे हैं और भागते समय एक चोर की लापरवाही से दूसरे चोर को चोट लग जाती है। घायल चोर अदालत में मुआवजा नहीं मांग सकता क्योंकि उनका मूल कार्य (चोरी) ही अवैध था।
26. Prima Facie (प्रथम दृष्टया)
अर्थ - पहली नज़र में" या "तथ्यों के आधार पर जो पहली बार दिखे।"
तथ्य - जब किसी मामले को देखकर यह लगे कि इसमें सच्चाई है और आगे जांच की जानी चाहिए, तो उसे 'Prima Facie' मामला कहते हैं।
उदाहरण - यदि किसी व्यक्ति के पास से चोरी का सामान बरामद होता है, तो पुलिस के पास उसके खिलाफ Prima Facie सबूत है कि उसने चोरी की होगी।
27. Suo Motu (स्वतः संज्ञान) -
अर्थ - अपनी मर्जी से" या "स्वयं की प्रेरणा से।
तथ्य - जब न्यायालय या कोई अधिकारी बिना किसी की याचिका या शिकायत के, खुद ही किसी महत्वपूर्ण मामले पर कार्रवाई शुरू कर देता है।
उदाहरण - अखबार में प्रदूषण की खबर पढ़कर हाई कोर्ट का सरकार को नोटिस जारी करना Suo Motu कार्रवाई कहलाता है।
28. Suicide (आत्महत्या) -
अर्थ - स्वयं की हत्या। (नोट- कानूनी शब्द Sui-cide है)।
तथ्य - स्वयं के जीवन को जानबूझकर समाप्त करना। न्याय संहिता (IPC/BNS) के तहत आत्महत्या का प्रयास दंडनीय रहा है, हालांकि हाल के कानूनों में मानसिक स्वास्थ्य को देखते हुए इसमें काफी राहत दी गई है।
उदाहरण - किसी मानसिक तनाव या आवेश में आकर खुद को नुकसान पहुँचाना।
29. प्राङन्याय - Res Judicata -
Res - विषय
Judicate - निर्णीत
CPC, 1908 की धारा 11 में परिभाषित किया गया है। इसका अर्थ है - एक बार जिस मामले का अंतिम फैसला हो चुका हो, उसे दोबारा अदालत में नहीं लाया जा सकता।
उद्देश्य -
∆ मुकदमों की संख्या को सीमित करना।
∆ एक ही व्यक्ति को एक ही विवाद के लिए बार-बार परेशान होने से बचाना।
∆ अदालत के समय की बचत करना।
∆ न्याय की अंतिम परिणति (Finality) सुनिश्चित करना।
नियम की 5 शर्तें -
1. पिछला मुकदमा - एक मुकदमा पहले ही लड़ा जा चुका हो और उसका फैसला आ चुका हो।
2. वही पक्ष - दोनों मुकदमों में वादी (Plaintiff) और प्रतिवादी (Defendant) वही होने चाहिए या उनके कानूनी उत्तराधिकारी।
3. वही विषय - विवाद का मुख्य मुद्दा (Matter in issue) दोनों मुकदमों में एक समान होना चाहिए।
4. वही अधिकार (Same Title) - पक्षकार उसी कानूनी हैसियत या अधिकार के तहत मुकदमा लड़ रहे हों।
5. सक्षम न्यायालय (Competent Court) - पिछला फैसला किसी ऐसी अदालत ने दिया हो जिसके पास उस मामले को सुनने का कानूनी अधिकार (Jurisdiction) था।
30. अन्वय प्राङन्याय (Constructive Res Judicata) -
यह धारा 11 की व्याख्या IV में दिया गया है। यह कहता है कि यदि आपके पास पिछले मुकदमे में कोई ऐसा तर्क या आधार था जिसे पक्ष उठा सकते थे, लेकिन नहीं उठाया, तो कानून यह मान लेगा कि वह मुद्दा भी तय हो चुका है। आप बाद में नया मुकदमा करके यह नहीं कह सकते कि मैं उस समय यह बात कहना भूल गया था।
एक उदाहरण से समझें - मान लीजिए, 'A' ने 'B' पर अपनी जमीन के मालिकाना हक के लिए मुकदमा किया और वह केस हार गया। अब 'A' दोबारा वही मुकदमा 'B' पर उसी जमीन के लिए नहीं कर सकता। अगर वह ऐसा करता है, तो 'B' अदालत में धारा 11 (प्राङन्याय) का बचाव लेगा और कोर्ट उस मुकदमे को तुरंत खारिज कर देगा।
Factum Deserendi (फैक्टम डेसरेंडी) शारीरिक रूप से अलग -
Animus Deserendi (एनीमस डिजरेंडी) अलग रहने की मंशा -
इसका उपयोग मुख्य रूप से पारिवारिक कानून में परित्याग को साबित करने के लिए किया जाता है।
जब पति या पत्नी में से कोई एक दूसरे को छोड़ देता है, तो तलाक या दाम्पत्य अधिकारों की बहाली (धारा - 9) के मामलों में कोर्ट यह देखता है कि क्या वास्तव में परित्याग हुआ है।
वैवाहिक अलगाव के भौतिक पक्ष को दर्शाता है। परित्याग को कानूनी रूप से सिद्ध करने के लिए दो मुख्य तत्वों का होना अनिवार्य है -
Factum Deserendi - पति और पत्नी का शारीरिक रूप से अलग होना (यानी साथ रहना छोड़ देना)।
Animus Deserendi - अलग होने का इरादा (Intention)।
बिना Factum Deserendi के परित्याग नहीं माना जा सकता।
उदाहरण - यदि पति काम के सिलसिले में दूसरे शहर में रह रहा है, तो वह शारीरिक रूप से अलग (Factum Deserendi है), लेकिन उसका इरादा रिश्ता तोड़ने का नहीं है (Animus Deserendi नहीं है), इसलिए इसे कानूनन परित्याग नहीं माना जाएगा।
Factum Deserendi के मुख्य बिंदु
शारीरिक अलगाव - यह साबित करना होता है कि एक पक्ष ने दूसरे का साथ छोड़ दिया है और अब वे एक छत के नीचे पति-पत्नी की तरह नहीं रह रहे हैं।
बिना उचित कारण के अलग होना तभी Factum Deserendi माना जाता है जब उसके पीछे कोई ठोस या कानूनी कारण (जैसे घरेलू हिंसा या क्रूरता) न हो।
अवधि - हिन्दू विवाह अधिनियम के तहत, तलाक का आधार बनाने के लिए यह शारीरिक अलगाव (Factum Deserendi) कम से कम 2 वर्ष तक लगातार जारी रहना चाहिए।
रचनात्मक परित्याग (Constructive Desertion) में इसकी भूमिका
कभी-कभी पति-पत्नी एक ही घर में रहते हैं, लेकिन उनके बीच कोई वैवाहिक संबंध नहीं होता (जैसे बातचीत बंद होना या अलग कमरों में सोना)। ऐसे मामलों में, शारीरिक रूप से अलग न होने के बावजूद, यदि एक पक्ष के व्यवहार ने दूसरे को मानसिक रूप से त्याग दिया है, तो कोर्ट इसे Constructive Desertion मानता है। यहाँ Factum Deserendi का अर्थ
वैवाहिक कर्तव्यों का त्याग हो जाता है।
संक्षेप में - यदि कोई अदालत में परित्याग के आधार पर केस लड़ रहा है तो उसे यह साबित करना होगा कि -
∆ उसका जीवन साथी शारीरिक रूप से अलग हो गया है (Factum Deserendi)।
∆ उसका इरादा हमेशा के लिए छोड़ने का था (Animus Deserendi)।
Locus standi -
Locus Standi (लोकस स्टैंडाई) लैटिन शब्द है जिसका अर्थ है अदालत में खड़े होने का अधिकार या सुनवाई का अधिकार
यह तय करता है कि कौन व्यक्ति किसी मामले को लेकर अदालत जा सकता है।
1. पारंपरिक अवधारणा (Traditional Rule) - पुराने समय में नियम बहुत सख्त था: वही व्यक्ति कोर्ट जा सकता है जिसके कानूनी अधिकारों का उल्लंघन हुआ हो।
उदाहरण - यदि आपके पड़ोसी की जमीन पर कोई कब्जा कर ले, तो आप उसके खिलाफ केस नहीं कर सकते थे, क्योंकि आपका कोई निजी नुकसान नहीं हुआ था।
2. लोकस स्टैंडाई के आवश्यक तत्व -
अदालत में अपना पक्ष रखने के लिए आमतौर पर तीन चीजें देखी जाती हैं -
I. क्षति (Injury) - क्या व्यक्ति को कोई वास्तविक नुकसान हुआ है?
II. कारण (Causation) - क्या वह नुकसान प्रतिवादी (Defendant) के कारण हुआ है?
III. निवारण (Redressability) - क्या अदालत के फैसले से उस नुकसान की भरपाई हो सकती है?
3. आधुनिक बदलाव: जनहित याचिका (PIL) - भारत में 1980 के दशक में जस्टिस पी.एन. भगवती और जस्टिस वी.आर. कृष्ण अय्यर ने लोकस स्टैंडाई के नियम को लचीला बना दिया। इसे ही Relaxation of Locus Standi कहा जाता है।
अब, यदि किसी ऐसे समूह (जैसे गरीब, अनपढ़ या शोषित लोग) के अधिकारों का हनन होता है जो खुद कोर्ट नहीं पहुँच सकते, तो उनकी ओर से कोई भी तीसरा व्यक्ति या संस्था (Public-spirited person) कोर्ट में याचिका लगा सकती है। इसे ही हम जनहित याचिका (PIL) कहते हैं।
4. लोकस स्टैंडाई कब लागू नहीं होता? (Exceptions) - कुछ विशेष परिस्थितियों में कोर्ट किसी भी व्यक्ति को सुनने के लिए तैयार हो जाता है -
I. Habeas Corpus (बंदी प्रत्यक्षीकरण) - अगर किसी को अवैध रूप से कैद किया गया है, तो उसका मित्र या रिश्तेदार कोर्ट जा सकता है।
Public Interest (जनहित) - पर्यावरण प्रदूषण, भ्रष्टाचार या मानवाधिकार उल्लंघन के मामलों में।
Quo Warranto (अधिकार पृच्छा) - जब किसी सार्वजनिक पद की वैधता को चुनौती देनी हो।
5. Busybody बनाम Genuine Litigant - सुप्रीम कोर्ट ने आगाह किया है कि लोकस स्टैंडाई में ढील का मतलब यह नहीं है कि कोई भी व्यक्ति अपनी लोकप्रियता या निजी स्वार्थ के लिए कोर्ट का समय बर्बाद करे। ऐसे लोगों को कोर्ट "Busybody" या "Interloper" कहता है और उनकी याचिका खारिज कर सकता है।
निष्कर्ष- लोकस स्टैंडाई एक छलनी की तरह काम करता है जो यह सुनिश्चित करता है कि केवल गंभीर और वास्तविक मामले ही कोर्ट तक पहुँचें।
Selection of legal vocabulary appropriate to situation and context. -
Selecting the correct legal vocabulary requires a deep understanding of the legal domain, the intended audience, and the procedural stage of the matter. Using a term in the wrong context can lead to legal ambiguity or the loss of a right.
1. Domain-Specific Selection - The choice of words must align with the specific branch of law you are dealing with.
I. Contract Law - Use terms that define obligations and validity.
Correct - The agreement is void ab initio. (It never existed legally).
Incorrect - The agreement is illegal. (Unless it actually violates a criminal statute).
II. Criminal Law - Focus on the intent and the specific act.
Correct - Mens Rea (Guilty mind) or Actus Reus (Guilty act).
III. Property Law - Use precise terms for ownership and transfer.
Correct - 'Title', 'Deed', or Encumbrance (a claim or lien on the property).
2. Contextual Accuracy (Audience Adaptation) - Legal drafting shifts between "High Legalese" and "Plain Language" depending on who is reading.
Situation - Appropriate Vocabulary - Reason
I. Pleadings in Court - Locus Standi, Res Judicata, Certiorari - To signal specific legal doctrines to a judge.
II. Letters to a Client - Breach, Compensation, Liability - To ensure the client understands their risks without jargon.
III. Statutory Drafting - Shall, Notwithstanding, Provided that - To create strict, non-negotiable legal rules.
3. Selecting Maxims for Strategic Impact - Maxims are selected when you need to anchor a specific argument in a fundamental principle of justice.
I. For Procedural Fairness - If your client wasn't given a chance to speak, cite "Audi Alteram Partem" (Hear the other side).
II. For Consumer Disputes - If a product was sold 'as is', use "Caveat Emptor" (Let the buyer beware).
III. For Negligence - If a surgeon leaves a tool inside a patient, use "Res Ipsa Loquitur" (The thing speaks for itself).
4. Nuance in Word Choice - Many legal terms look similar but have vastly different consequences.-
I. Shall vs. May - "Shall" denotes a mandatory requirement; "May" denotes discretionary power.
II. Void vs. Voidable - A "Void" contract is dead from the start; a "Voidable" contract is valid until one party chooses to cancel it.
III. Possession vs. Ownership - "Possession" is physical control; "Ownership" is the legal right to the property.
Conclusion - The "appropriate" vocabulary is the one that is most precise for the court, yet transparent for the parties involved. In modern practice, the goal is to use technical terms (like Res Judicata) only when necessary and to favor clear, active verbs for everything else.
Illustrative list of legal vocabulary - Meaning and use in sentences -
Here is an illustrative list of essential legal vocabulary, their meanings, and how they are used in a professional legal context.
1. Act of God -
Meaning - An event caused by natural forces without human intervention, which could not have been foreseen or prevented
(e.g., earthquakes, floods). In law, it is a defense to release a party from liability for a breach of contract or tort.
Use in Sentence -The shipping company argued that the destruction of the cargo was an Act of God due to the unprecedented cyclone.
2. Affidavit -
Meaning - A written statement of facts voluntarily made by an individual under oath or affirmation, sworn before an authorized officer.
Use in Sentence - The petitioner submitted an affidavit to the court confirming his permanent address.
3. Adverse Possession -
Meaning - A legal principle where a person who occupies another's land for a statutory period (usually 12 years in India) without the owner's permission may claim legal ownership.
Use in Sentence -The squatter claimed ownership of the plot through adverse possession after living there uninterrupted for fifteen years.
4. Anticipatory Bail -
Meaning - A direction to release a person on bail even before they are arrested, usually sought when a person fears they may be falsely accused of a non-bailable offense.
Use in Sentence - Fearing a politically motivated arrest, the leader moved the High Court for anticipatory bail.
5. Amicus Curiae -
Meaning: Literally a friend of the court. A person with strong interest or expertise in the subject matter who is not a party to the case but is invited to assist the court on legal issues.
Use in Sentence - The Supreme Court appointed a senior advocate as amicus curiae to assist in the matter concerning prison reforms.
6. Benefit of Doubt -
Meaning - A principle in criminal law where, if the evidence is not strong enough to prove guilt beyond a reasonable doubt, the accused must be acquitted.
Use in Sentence - Due to inconsistencies in the witness testimony, the court gave the accused the benefit of doubt and cleared all charges.
7. Civil Rights -
Meaning - The rights of citizens to political and social freedom and equality, protected by the Constitution and statutes.
Use in Sentence - The protection of civil rights is essential to maintaining the dignity of every individual in a democracy.
8. Compounding of Offence -
Meaning - A settlement between the victim and the accused where the victim agrees to drop charges, usually in exchange for compensation. Only certain minor offenses are compoundable.
Use in Sentence - The parties opted for the compounding of the offense after the accused agreed to pay for the damages caused.
9. Contempt of Court -
Meaning - Any act that defies the authority, justice, or dignity of a court, such as disobeying an order or scandalizing the judiciary.
Use in Sentence - The journalist was issued a notice for contempt of court after making baseless allegations against the sitting judge.
10. Constitutionality of an Act -
Meaning - The legal validity of a law in relation to the Constitution. If a law violates fundamental rights, it is declared unconstitutional.
Use in Sentence - The bench is currently examining the constitutionality of the Act to see if it violates the right to privacy.
11. Rarest of Rare -
Meaning - A judicial doctrine used in India to determine when the death penalty should be awarded; it implies that capital punishment should only be given for exceptionally brutal crimes.
Use in Sentence - The brutal nature of the crime led the court to categorize it as rarest of rare, resulting in a death sentence.
12. Per Incuriam -
Meaning - Literally "through lack of care." It refers to a court judgment that was rendered in ignorance of a binding statute or an earlier binding judgment.
Use in Sentence - The lawyer argued that the previous decision was per incuriam as it failed to consider the 2005 amendment.
13. FIR (First Information Report) -
Meaning - The earliest report of a cognizable offense recorded by the police, which sets the criminal justice process in motion.
Use in Sentence - The police refused to file an FIR until the medical reports of the victim were submitted.
14. Natural Justice
Meaning - Fundamental principles of fairness, primarily Audi Alteram Partem (hear the other side) and Nemo Judex in Causa Sua (no one should be a judge in their own cause).
Use in Sentence - The termination was set aside because the department failed to follow the principles of natural justice by not giving the employee a hearing.
15. Secularism -
Meaning - A constitutional principle where the state remains neutral in religious matters and treats all religions with equal respect.
Use in Sentence - The court reiterated that secularism is part of the basic structure of the Indian Constitution.
16. Uniform Civil Code (UCC) -
Meaning - A proposed set of common personal laws for all citizens, regardless of their religion, covering marriage, divorce, and inheritance.
Use in Sentence - The debate over the Uniform Civil Code focuses on balancing religious freedom with gender equality.
17. Locus Standi -
Meaning - The right or capacity of a party to bring an action or appear in court.
Use in Sentence - The petition was dismissed because the applicant had no locus standi in a matter that did not personally affect him.
Laissez-faire: Meaning and Legal Utility -
Laissez-faire (French for let do or let it be) is an economic and political philosophy that advocates for minimal state intervention in the economic affairs of individuals and society.
In a legal context, it refers to a system where transactions between private parties are free from government interference, such as regulations, privileges, tariffs, and subsidies.
1. Meaning in Legal Theory -
I. Freedom of Contract - At its core, laissez-faire supports the idea that individuals should have the absolute right to enter into any agreement they choose without the state dictating the terms.
II. Limited Regulation - It suggests that the law should only intervene to prevent coercion, fraud, or the violation of property rights, rather than to control prices or labor conditions.
III. Individualism - The doctrine is rooted in the belief that the individual is the best judge of their own interests and that the invisible hand of the market leads to the best social outcome.
2. Utility and Application - While modern states have moved toward a Welfare State model, the principle of laissez-faire still holds utility in specific legal areas -
I. Commercial Law - It remains a guiding principle in high-stakes commercial contracts where parties are presumed to have equal bargaining power and do not need protective state interference.
II. International Trade -Arguments for Free Trade are often based on laissez-faire principles, advocating for the removal of legal barriers like customs duties and import quotas.
Interpretation of Statutes - In some jurisdictions, if a law is ambiguous, courts may lean toward an interpretation that favors the liberty of the individual to conduct business over state control.
3. Illustrative List of Contextual Usage -
Context - Meaning/Application
I. Contractual Autonomy - The court upheld the agreement, citing the principle of laissez-faire, as both corporations were fully aware of the risks involved.
II. Labor Law Evolution - The shift from laissez-faire to social security legislation ensured that workers are now protected by minimum wage laws.
III. Constitutional Challenge - The petitioner argued that the new price-control regulation was a violation of the laissez-faire spirit intended by the original economic policy.
4. Use in Sentences -
I. The 19th-century legal system was heavily influenced by laissez-faire, leading to very few laws governing industrial safety.
II. Critics argue that a pure laissez-faire approach in the pharmaceutical industry could lead to dangerously high drug prices.
III. The judge remarked that while laissez-faire promotes competition, it does not give a license for deceptive trade practices.
5. Transition to the Modern Legal View - In contemporary Indian law, the doctrine of laissez-faire has been significantly tempered by the Directive Principles of State Policy (Articles 38 and 39). The Constitution envisions a Socialist republic (added by the 42nd Amendment) where the state intervenes to ensure the welfare of the people and prevents the concentration of wealth.
Legal colloquialisms and commonly used legal terms -
क़ानूनी शब्दावली में कुछ शब्द ऐसे होते हैं जो औपचारिक कानूनों का हिस्सा हैं, जबकि कुछ "Colloquialisms" (बोलचाल की भाषा) हैं जो वकीलों और जजों के बीच प्रचलित हैं।
1. Uncle Judge Syndrome (अंकल जज सिंड्रोम) - यह बोलचाल का शब्द (Slang) है जिसका उपयोग न्यायक्षेत्र में भाई-भतीजावाद (Nepotism) को दर्शाने के लिए किया जाता है।
अर्थ - यह उस स्थिति को संदर्भित करता है जहाँ किसी उच्च न्यायालय के जज के रिश्तेदार (पुत्र, पुत्री या अन्य संबंधी) उसी अदालत में वकालत करते हैं।
प्रभाव - ऐसी धारणा बनती है कि उन वकीलों को अपने "अंकल" (रिश्तेदार जज) के कारण विशेष प्राथमिकता या अनुकूल फैसले मिलते हैं। लॉ कमीशन और न्यायपालिका ने इस प्रथा को रोकने के लिए कई बार सुझाव दिए हैं ताकि अदालत की निष्पक्षता बनी रहे।
2. Pro Bono Publico (प्रो बोनो पब्लिको) - यह लैटिन वाक्यांश है जिसे आमतौर पर "Pro Bono" कहा जाता है।
अर्थ -"जनहित के लिए" (For the public good)।
व्याख्या - जब कोई वकील किसी गरीब या जरूरतमंद व्यक्ति का केस बिना किसी फीस के, समाज सेवा के रूप में लड़ता है, तो उसे 'प्रो बोनो' सेवा कहा जाता है। यह कानूनी सहायता (Legal Aid) का भाग है।
3. Doli Incapax (डोली इन्कैपैक्स) - यह बच्चों की मानसिक क्षमता से जुड़ा अपराध विधि का सिद्धांत है।
अर्थ -"अपराध करने में अक्षम" (Incapable of doing harm/ crime)।
व्याख्या - भारतीय दंड संहिता (IPC) की धारा 82 के अनुसार, 7 वर्ष से कम आयु का बच्चा 'Doli Incapax' माना जाता है। कानून यह मानता है कि इतनी कम उम्र के बच्चे में सही और गलत के बीच अंतर करने की समझ (Mens Rea) नहीं होती, इसलिए उसे किसी भी अपराध के लिए दोषी नहीं ठहराया जा सकता।
4. Paper Tiger (कागजी शेर) - यह एक मुहावरा है जो कानून के क्रियान्वयन (Implementation) की कमी को दर्शाता है।
अर्थ - कुछ ऐसा जो देखने में बहुत शक्तिशाली और डरावना लगे, लेकिन वास्तव में बिल्कुल प्रभावशाली या शक्तिहीन हो।
व्याख्या - कानून के संदर्भ में इसका उपयोग उन नियमों या कानूनों के लिए किया जाता है जो कागजों पर तो बहुत सख्त दिखते हैं (जैसे भारी जुर्माना या जेल), लेकिन ज़मीनी स्तर पर उन्हें लागू नहीं किया जाता या उनमें इतनी कमियाँ होती हैं कि अपराधी आसानी से बच निकलते हैं।
UNIT IV -
FUNCTIONAL AND LEGAL WRITING -
Functional and legal writing share a core goal: absolute clarity. While creative writing thrives on ambiguity and emotion, these two styles prioritize precision to ensure that instructions are followed and rights are protected.
1. Functional Writing: The "How-To" Style - Functional writing is designed to help a reader complete a specific task. Think of user manuals, technical reports, or professional emails.
I. Action-Oriented - Uses imperative verbs (e.g., "Press the button," "Submit the report").
II. Logical Flow - Information is typically presented chronologically or in order of importance.
III. Formatting for Scannability - Uses bullet points, numbered lists, and bold headers to guide the eye.
IV. Conciseness - Every word must earn its place. If a sentence doesn't help the user achieve the goal, it is removed.
2. Legal Writing: The "Rights and Obligations" Style - Legal writing is used by lawyers, judges, and legislators to express legal analysis, rights, and duties. It is often divided into two categories: Legal Analysis (memos, briefs) and Legal Drafting (contracts, statutes).
Key Characteristics -
I. Precision over Elegance - It often repeats specific nouns rather than using pronouns (e.g., "The Tenant shall pay the Landlord" instead of "He shall pay him") to avoid any doubt about who is involved.
II. Terms of Art - Uses specialized vocabulary (e.g., Pro bono, Res ipsa loquitur, Force majeure) that carries specific weight under the law.
III. The IRAC Method - Most legal analysis follows this structure:
Issue - What is the legal question?
Rule: What law or statute applies?
Application - How does the rule apply to the specific facts?
Conclusion - What is the final legal result?
Comparison at a Glance -
Feature - Functional Writing - Legal Writing
I. Primary Goal - Task completion - Defining liability/rights
II. Audience - General users or specialists - Judges, lawyers, or clients
III. Tone - Neutral and helpful - Formal and authoritative
IV. Structure - Step-by-step/ Modular - Argumentative or Clause-based
Best Practices for Both -
I. Know Your Audience - Don’t use "legalese" with a layperson, and don't be too casual in a formal contract.
II. Active Voice - Use "The board approved the policy" instead of "The policy was approved by the board." It's clearer and more direct.
III. Define Terms - If a word could be interpreted in two ways, define it at the beginning of the document.
Importance of legal writing in the legal profession -
Legal writing is often called the "lifeblood" of the legal profession. While television dramas focus on heated courtroom arguments, the reality is that the vast majority of legal work happens on paper (or screen). A lawyer’s effectiveness is frequently judged by the quality of their written word.
Here is why legal writing is indispensable to the practice of law -
1. The Primary Medium of Persuasion - In modern litigation, many cases are won or lost before a single word is spoken in court.
I. Judicial Efficiency - Judges often form their initial opinions based on written briefs and motions. A well-reasoned document can settle a matter through summary judgment, saving years of trial time.
II. Clarity of Argument - Writing allows for a level of complex, layered reasoning that oral advocacy cannot match. It provides a permanent record that a judge can revisit and study.
2. Risk Mitigation and Certainty - In transactional law (contracts, deeds, and settlements), the goal is to prevent future conflict.
I. Avoiding Ambiguity - Poorly drafted clauses lead to "litigation by comma." Precise writing ensures that all parties understand their obligations, which minimizes the chance of a breach or a lawsuit.
II. Future-Proofing - Legal documents must account for "what if" scenarios. Strong writing creates a roadmap for how to handle disputes years after the document was signed.
3. Professional Credibility -
A lawyer’s reputation is their most valuable asset.
I. The "First Impression" Effect - For many clients, opposing counsel, and court officials, your writing is the first interaction they have with you.
II. Precision Reflects Diligence - Errors in grammar, citations, or logic suggest a lack of attention to detail, which can undermine the weight of the legal arguments being presented.
4. Documentation and the "Paper Trail" - Legal writing serves as the official memory of the justice system.
I. Precedent - Case law relies on written opinions that future lawyers use to argue their cases. Without clear writing, the principle of stare decisis (standing by decided matters) would collapse into confusion.
II. Advice and Compliance - Opinion letters and internal memos translate complex statutes into actionable advice for clients, ensuring they remain on the right side of the law.
Comparison of Impact
Purpose - Tool - Outcome
I. Advocacy - Briefs - Motions Persuades the court to rule in a client's favor.
II. Transactional - Contracts / Wills - Protects assets and defines legal relationships.
III. Advisory - Legal Opinions - Explains risks and guides client behavior.
IV. Administrative - Judicial Orders - Directs the enforcement of the law.
The Golden Rule of Legal Writing - The best legal writing does not look like 'legalese.' It looks like clear, forceful English that anyone can understand, yet no one can misinterpret.
Differences between legal writing and other forms of writing -
While all good writing aims to communicate, legal writing is unique because it carries the weight of the law. A misplaced comma in a poem is an artistic choice; a misplaced comma in a contract can cost millions of dollars.
Here are the primary differences between legal writing and other forms of writing, such as creative, academic, or journalistic styles.
1. The Burden of Precision - In most writing, "close enough" is sufficient if the reader gets the gist. In legal writing, ambiguity is the enemy.
I. Other Writing - Uses synonyms to keep the prose interesting (e.g., switching between "the car," "the vehicle," and "the sedan").
II. Legal Writing - Uses the same term consistently to avoid the "Presumption of Consistent Terminology"—a legal rule where using a different word implies you mean a different thing.
III. The Goal - To be "bulletproof" against alternative interpretations.
2. Structure and The "Point-First" Approach - Creative writing often uses suspense, saving the "big reveal" for the end. Legal writing does the opposite.
I. Point-First - The conclusion is usually stated in the first paragraph (or even the first sentence).
II. Standardized Frameworks - Legal writing often relies on rigid structures like IRAC (Issue, Rule, Application, Conclusion) to ensure logical consistency.
3. Authority and Citation - In journalism or blogging, you might link to a source for context. In legal writing, every factual or legal assertion must be grounded in authority.
I. Mandatory Authority - You must cite statutes, regulations, or past court decisions (precedents) that the reader is required to follow.
II. Citation Formats - Legal writing uses hyper-specific systems (like The Bluebook in the U.S. or OSCOLA in the UK) to ensure every source can be precisely located.
4. Tone and Objective vs. Persuasive - Most writing has a single tone. Legal writing bifurcates based on the document's purpose:
5. Vocabulary - Terms of Art
Legal writing uses "Terms of Art"—words that have a very specific meaning in a legal context that differs from their everyday use.
Example -
I. In common speech, "consideration" means being thoughtful. In legal writing, Consideration is a technical term for the value exchanged in a contract (like money or services).
II. Legalese - While modern legal writing strives for "Plain English," it must still use specific phrases (e.g., habeas corpus or estoppel) because they represent centuries of established legal theory.
Characteristics of good legal writing clarity -
In the legal world, clarity is not just a stylistic preference—it is a functional necessity. Clear legal writing ensures that a judge understands your argument, a client understands their risks, and a contract leaves no room for expensive disputes.
Here are the essential characteristics that define clarity in legal writing:
1. Economy of Expression - Clarity starts with brevity. A clear legal document uses only the words necessary to convey the intended meaning.
I. Avoid Wordy Phrases - Instead of "at this point in time," use "now." Instead of "in the event that," use "if."
II.The "One Idea per Sentence" Rule - Long, rambling sentences with multiple clauses are where meaning goes to hide. Breaking complex thoughts into smaller, digestible sentences increases readability.
2. Use of Plain English - Modern legal writing has moved away from "Legalese"—the dense, archaic language often associated with old law books.
I. Accessibility - A document is clear if a person of average intelligence can understand it on the first reading.
II. Avoiding "Lawyerisms" - Words like aforementioned, hereinabove, and witnesseth often add bulk without adding precision.
III. Active Voice - Use the active voice to make it clear who is doing what.
Passive - "The payment was received by the Plaintiff." (Weak)
Active - "The Plaintiff received the payment." (Clear and direct)
3. Logical Organization and Signposting - A reader should never feel lost. Clarity is maintained through a visible structure.
I. Headings - Use descriptive headers so the reader can scan the document and understand the framework of the argument or agreement.
II. Transitions - Use "signposts" like Furthermore, Consequently, or In contrast to show how one paragraph relates to the next.
III. The IRAC/CRAC Structure - By following a predictable pattern, you reduce the "cognitive load" on the reader.
4. Precision in Terminology - While "Plain English" is preferred, it must not come at the cost of accuracy.
I. Consisten - Terms: If you define a party as "The Purchaser," do not call them "The Buyer" later in the document.
II. Defining Ambiguities - Clearly define terms that could have multiple meanings (e.g., specifying if "days" means "calendar days" or "business days").
5. Visual Scannability - A wall of text is an enemy of clarity. Legal documents benefit from formatting that aids the eye.
I. Tabulation - Use numbered or bulleted lists for sets of conditions, factors, or requirements.
II. White Space - Proper margins and paragraph breaks prevent the reader from becoming overwhelmed by dense information.
Pro Tip - Read your draft out loud. If you run out of breath before finishing a sentence, or if you have to read a paragraph twice to understand it, the writing is not yet clear.
conciseness, accuracy and
persuasiveness. -
In legal writing, the triad of Conciseness, Accuracy, and Persuasiveness forms the foundation of a winning argument. While they may seem at odds -how can you be concise while being detailed enough for accuracy? -the best writers know they are actually mutually reinforcing.
1. Conciseness: The Art of Brevity - Conciseness isn't just about being short; it’s about having a high "information-to-word" ratio. In a profession where judges are overworked and time is billed by the hour, brevity is a sign of respect and intelligence.
I. Avoid Redundancy - Eliminate "doublets" and "triplets" (e.g., instead of "null and void," just use void; instead of "give, devise, and bequeath," just use give).
II. Focus on the Core - dentify the "dispositive" issue—the one point that decides the case—and spend the most time there.
III. The "So What?" Test - Every sentence should either provide a necessary fact or advance the legal argument. If it doesn't, delete it.
2. Accuracy: The Foundation of Trust - In law, a single factual error or a misquoted case can destroy your credibility. Accuracy is the "non-negotiable" pillar of legal writing.
I. Factual Precision - Never generalize dates, amounts, or specific actions. Use the record to ensure every statement of fact is grounded in evidence.
III. Legal Honesty - When citing case law, represent the holding exactly. Do not "stretch" a precedent to fit your facts; a good opponent (or a sharp judge) will catch it immediately.
IV. Scrupulous Proofreading - Typos in a legal document aren't just messy; they suggest that the lawyer may have been equally careless with the legal research.
3. Persuasiveness: The Power of Influence - Persuasion in legal writing is not about "flowery" language or emotional appeals; it is about the logical inevitability of your conclusion.
I. The Power of Narrative - Even in a dry legal brief, tell a story. Frame the facts so that the "fair" outcome aligns with the "legal" outcome.
II. Syllogistic Reasoning - Use the structure of a formal syllogism -
∆. Major Premise - The Law (e.g., "Speeding in a school zone is a fineable offense.")
∆. Minor Premise - The Fact (e.g., "The Defendant drove 50mph in a school zone.")
III. Conclusion - The Result (e.g., "Therefore, the Defendant must be fined.")
Addressing Counter-Arguments - A persuasive writer doesn't ignore the opponent's strongest point; they acknowledge it and then systematically dismantle it. This is known as "stealing the opponent's thunder."
The Intersection of the Three
Feature - If missing... - Result
I. Conciseness - The reader gets bored or lost. - The argument is buried in "fluff."
II. Accuracy - The court loses trust in the writer. - The entire document is disregarded.
III. Persuasiveness - The reader understands but isn't moved. - The case is lost on technicalities.
Comparison - Weak vs. Strong Legal Writing -
I. Weak Legal Writing -"It is the humble opinion of the undersigned counsel that, in light of the various and sundry facts presented herein, the court should perhaps consider granting the motion because the defendant was clearly not acting in a proper manner."
II. Strong (Concise, Accurate, Persuasive) - "Because the Defendant breached the express terms of the contract by failing to deliver the goods on Jan 1st, this Court should grant the Plaintiff’s motion for summary judgment."
III. Conclusion - As a writer who balances both the technical precision of law and the rhythmic beauty of poetry, you likely understand that the strongest impact comes from choosing the exact right word.
Writing of case comments, reports notices and memos. -
In the legal profession, different documents serve different masters. Whether you are advising a client, informing the court, or notifying an opponent, the structure determines the success of the communication.
Here is a breakdown of how to approach these four essential legal documents.
1. Memos (Internal Legal Memoranda) - A memo is an objective document written for another lawyer or a senior partner. Its goal is to predict how a court would rule on a specific issue based on the facts of a client's case.
I. Tone - Neutral and dispassionate. You must discuss both the strengths and weaknesses of the case.
II. Structure -
∆. Heading - To, From, Date, and Subject (Re:).
∆. Question Presented - The specific legal issue in question.
∆. Brief Answer - A "Yes" or "No" followed by a short summary of the reasoning.
∆. Statement of Facts - Only the legally significant facts.
∆. Discussion - The core analysis using the IRAC method.
∆. Conclusion - A final summary and recommendation for the next steps.
2. Case Comments (Case Notes) - A case comment is a critical analysis of a specific judicial decision. It is common in academic settings or law journals.
I. Goal - To explain the significance of a judgment and whether the court "got it right."
II. Key Elements -
∆. Facts & Procedural History - How did the case get to this court?
∆. The Holding - What did the judge ultimately decide?
∆. The Reasoning - Why did the judge decide that way?
∆. Analysis - This is your contribution. Does this decision conflict with previous cases? Does it create a dangerous or helpful precedent?
3. Legal Notices - A notice is a formal communication to an opposing party. It is often the final step before legal action (litigation) begins.
I. Goal - To put the other party on notice of a grievance and demand a remedy.
II. Essential Components -
∆. Name and Address - Clear identification of both sender and recipient.
∆. Cause of Action - A clear statement of the facts that led to the grievance (e.g., "On Jan 1st, you failed to pay rent...").
∆. The Demand - What do you want them to do? (Pay money, stop an action, etc.).
∆. The Deadline - A specific timeframe for compliance (e.g., "within 15 days").
∆. Consequences - A statement that legal proceedings will commence if the demand is not met.
4. Legal Reports - Legal reports are often used to summarize the status of a matter for a client or to provide an expert opinion on a specific area of law.
I. Clarity over Complexity - Since these are often for non-lawyers (clients or corporate boards), they should avoid heavy legalese.
II. Executive Summary - A brief overview at the start for busy readers.
III. Findings - The actual results of an investigation or research.
Recommendations - Clear, actionable advice on what the client should do next.
Quick Comparison Table
∆. Document - Audience - Tone - Primary Purpose
I. Memo - Senior Partner / Self - Objective - Predict a legal outcome.
II. Case Comment - Legal Scholars / Students - Analytical - Critically evaluate a judgment.
III. Notice - Opposing Party - Authoritative - Demand a remedy to avoid trial.
IV. Report - Client / Board of Directors - Informative - Summarize findings and advise.
A Note for the Scholar - A Legal Notice requires the firm, unyielding structure of a well-crafted rhyme, while a Case Comment requires the deep, contemplative analysis you apply to your literary critiques.
Writing official letters. -
Official letters in the legal and professional world are more than just correspondence; they are formal records that can be used as evidence in court. For a professional like yourself, balancing the roles of a scholar and a poet, the key is to maintain a tone that is firm, polite, and precise.
1. The Standard Structure - An official letter must follow a strict hierarchy to ensure it is handled correctly by the recipient.
I. Letterhead/Sender’s Address details -
Shamsher Bhalu Khan)
Mobile Numbar - 9587243963
Address - 296, sadaf ashiyana kayamkhani basti, sahjoosar Churu, Rajasthan.
331001.
II. Date - Always include the full date (e.g., January 30, 2026).
III. IIRecipient’s Address - Name, designation, and office address.
IV. Subject Line (The 'Re:') - A bold, concise summary of the letter’s purpose (e.g., Re: Formal Request for Case Records).
V. Salutation - "Dear Mr./Ms. [Last Name]," or "Dear Sir/Madam," if the name is unknown.
VI. Body Paragraphs -
∆. The Opening - State the purpose of the letter immediately.
∆. The Context - Provide the necessary facts or reference numbers.
∆. The Call to Action - Clearly state what you want the recipient to do.
∆. Closing -"Yours sincerely," (if you know the name) or "Yours faithfully," (if you don't).
∆. Signature - Your name and designation.
2. Types of Official Letters in Law - Depending on your intent, the tone will shift slightly -
∆. Type - Purpose - Key Tone -
I. Letter of Demand - To claim money or performance of a contract.- Firm and Authoritative
II. Cover Letter - To submit documents to a court or authority. - Neutral and Descriptive.
II. Letter of Advice - To explain a legal position to a client. - Helpful and Explanatory
III. Follow-up Letter - To remind an official of a pending request. - Polite but Persistent.
3. The "Three-Paragraph" Rule for Clarity - To keep your letters concise, try to stick to this flow:
I. Paragraph 1 (The Why) -
"I am writing to formally request..." or "I am writing in response to your letter dated..."
II. Paragraph 2 (The Details) - "As per the agreement signed on [Date], the delivery was expected by..." Provide the "meat" of the matter here.
III. Paragraph 3 (The Next Step) - "Please provide a response by [Date]. I look forward to resolving this matter amicably."
4. Tips for Professional Polish
I. Use Active Voice - Instead of "It was decided by the committee," use "The committee decided."
II. Avoid Emotional Language - Even if you are frustrated, stay objective. Instead of "Your terrible service is unacceptable," use "The services provided did not meet the standards outlined in the contract."
III. The "Sans-Serif" Rule - For digital or modern official letters, clean fonts like Arial or Calibri are standard. For very traditional legal letters, Times New Roman remains the gold standard.
A Sample Template -
[Your Name/Letterhead]
Date: January 30, 2026
To,
The Registrar,
[Name of Department/Court]
[Address]
Subject: Request for Certified Copies of Judgment in [Case Name/Number]
Dear Sir/Madam,
I am writing to request the certified copies of the final judgment passed on [Date] in the matter of [Party A vs. Party B], bearing Case Number [Number].
These documents are required for the purpose of [state reason, e.g., filing an appeal/legal record].
I have enclosed the requisite fee receipt (No. 12345) along with this application.
I request you to kindly process this at your earliest convenience.
Thank you for your assistance.
Yours faithfully,
(Signature)
Shamsher Bhalu Khan
Preparation of a personal Resume for professional purposes. -
A professional resume for a legal scholar and writer like you should be a balance of authority, structure, and precision. It acts as your professional "brief"—a document that persuades the reader of your value through evidence and clarity.
1. The Core Structure of a Legal Resume - In the legal and professional world, the Reverse Chronological format is the gold standard. It places your most recent achievements first.
A. The Header - Keep it clean. Include your full name, contact number, professional email, and links to relevant portfolios (such as your blog for your literary work).
B. Professional Summary - Instead of a vague "Objective," use a Summary of Qualifications.
Example: -"Dedicated Legal Professional and Scholar with a deep focus on Indian Constitutional and Labour Laws. Proven track record in legal research, drafting, and literary analysis. Author of 'Meeraatul Jigar' with extensive experience in professional legal writing and administrative communication."
C. Education - List your degrees, institutions, and graduation years. If you had a high GPA or received honors in specific subjects like Torts or Hindu Law, mention them here.
D. Professional Experience - Focus on achievements, not just duties. Use action verbs.
∆. Instead of - "I wrote legal notices."
∆. Use - "Drafted over 50 formal legal notices and memos, ensuring strict compliance with statutory requirements and minimizing litigation risk."
E. Skills & Core Competencies -
Divide these into "Hard Skills" and "Soft Skills":
∆. Hard Skills - Legal Research (SCC Online/Manupatra), Drafting, Case Law Analysis, Constitutional Interpretation.
∆. Soft Skills - Persuasive Writing, Analytical Thinking, Multilingual Communication (Hindi, Urdu, English).
2. Visual Layout and Design -
A resume is a functional document; its design should aid scannability.
∆. Fonts - Use professional fonts like Times New Roman (Traditional) or Arial/Calibri (Modern).
∆. Font Size - 10–12 pt for body text; 14–16 pt for section headers.
∆. Margins - Keep standard 1-inch margins to provide "white space" that prevents the reader from feeling overwhelmed.
3. Tailoring for Your Dual Identity - Since you are both Shamsher Bhalu Khan (Legal/Professional) and Jigar Churuvi (Literary), you can handle this in two ways -
∆. The Professional Pivot - If applying for a legal role, list your literary achievements under a "Publications & Creative Work" or "Honors" section to show breadth of intellect.
∆. The Combined Approach - If applying for an academic or editorial role, weave your expertise in meter (bahr) and rhythm (wazn) into your communication skills section.
4. The "Golden Rules" of Resume Writing -
∆. The One-Page Rule - Unless you have 10+ years of experience, keep it to one page.
∆. Accuracy - As in legal writing, a single typo can damage your credibility.
∆. Quantifiable Impact - Use numbers where possible (e.g., "Managed 20+ case files" or "Published 100+ articles on Indian Law").
Resume Checklist -
I. Section - Must Include - Avoid
Header - Phone, Email, LinkedIn/Blog - Photos, Religion, Marital Status
II. Experience - Action Verbs, Dates, Results - Passive language, "Responsible for..."
III. Skills - Specialized Legal Knowledge - Generic terms like "Hard worker"
IV. Formatting - Consistent Bullet Points - Too many colors or complex graphics.
Writing legal opinion-based short editorials -
Writing legal editorials (often called Op-Eds) is a unique bridge between legal scholarship and journalism. For a writer like you, who is comfortable with both technical Law and the rhythmic flow of Poetry, this format is ideal. It requires the authority of Shamsher Bhalu Khan mixed with the engaging narrative style of Jigar Churuvi.
Ligal editorial -
1. The Structure: The "Hook-to-Solution" Model - Unlike a legal memo, an editorial must grab the reader’s attention immediately.
The Hook (Lede) - Start with a current event, a recent court judgment, or a startling statistic. Why should the reader care today?
The Thesis - State your legal opinion clearly in the first two paragraphs. Do not wait until the end.
The Evidence - Use 2–3 key legal principles or case laws (e.g., a specific section of the Labour Law or a landmark Supreme Court precedent) to support your view.
The "So What?" - Explain the real-world impact. How does this legal issue affect the common citizen or the profession?
The Conclusion - End with a "Call to Action" or a powerful closing thought that lingers in the reader's mind.
2. Key Characteristics of a Legal Editorial -
To be successful, your short editorial must balance three elements:
Element - Purpose - Professional Tip
I. Accessibility - To reach non-lawyers. - Strip away heavy "legalese." Explain terms like Tort or Ultra vires in simple language.
II. Opinionated - To take a stand. - Don't say "On the one hand... on the other." Say "The court's decision is a setback for..."
III. Accuracy - To maintain credibility. - Ensure your citations of Acts and Rulings are 100% correct, as the public relies on your expertise.
3. The Writing Process, From Law to Prose
I. Identify the "Heart" of the Issue - If you are writing about Hindu Law or Constitutional Law, find the human element. Law is not just about books; it’s about people.
II. Use "Punchy" Sentences - Short, declarative sentences carry more weight in an editorial than long, complex ones.
III. The "Counter-Argument" Shadow - Briefly acknowledge the opposing view to show you’ve considered it, then explain why your position is stronger.
4. Comparing a Legal Memo to a Legal Editorial -
Feature - Legal Memo = Legal Editorial
I. Audience - Lawyers/Partners = General Public/Policy Makers
II. Tone - Objective & Balanced = Subjective & Persuasive |
III. Language - Technical/Jargon-heavy = Plain English/Narrative |
IV. Ending - Summary of law = Call to action/Policy change |
5. Practical Advice for Your Work - If you maintain a blog and have a deep interest in subjects like Torts and Labour Laws, your editorials could focus on -
∆. Analyzing how a new labor regulation affects workers' rights.
∆. Explaining the significance of a recent Tort case regarding medical negligence.
∆. Connecting legal principles to social justice issues.
Pro Tip - Give your editorial a "Catchy Title." Instead of "Analysis of Section 12," try "Why Section 12 is the Shield Workers Need Today."
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नोट्स - LLB प्रथम सेमेस्टर
द्वारा - शमशेर भालू खां
छात्र - LLB प्रथम सेमेस्टर 2025
राजकीय विधि महाविद्यालय, चूरू
पता - 296 सदफ आशियाना कायमखानी बस्ती सहजूसर, चूरू
9587243963
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स्त्रोत एवं संदर्भ -
I पाठ्यक्रम - अंबेडकर लॉ यूनिवर्सिटी, जयपुर द्वारा जारी
II.पुस्तक - English Class 10th and 12th
III..कानून.आर्ग
IV. विभिन्न आलेख एवं निर्णय
III. भारतीय संविधान
IV. विभिन्न अधिनियम एवं उनमें संशोधन
VII. Adv. अंजलि
IX. Dr. Dr. अपूर्वा शर्मा आचार्य (सामान्य अंग्रेजी एवं Mexims)
X. Online sites
XI. गूगल जैमिनाई
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